Business Continuity Management & Its Critical Services and Functions Essay

Business Continuity Management and Its Critical Services and Functions - Essay Example As the paper features this century, organizations are at noteworthy dangers, which if not very much oversaw may end a business. Subsequently, there should be least authoritative necessities for any business congruity plan. The reason for existing is to improve business security through compelling debacle the board plans. Expanding necessities guarantees business endurance after a disaster. In any case, where the law requires a business to just exchange with different organizations in consistence with the guidelines, it would back off if not decimate a business in totality. The base necessities could likewise prompt conclusion of firms not in congruity with the law. What's more, chiefs could confront desperate outcomes after a catastrophe that would bring about interruption of the substances. The guidelines would be going about as a control to such administrations. While thinking of business congruity plans, catastrophe the executives and recuperation of an organization after emergencies drive the procedure. In such manner, different administration apparatuses face implementation. The absolute most significant exercises of the endeavor to focus on incorporate business security, the board of records, review, data framework, administration level understandings, among others. Every one of these parts are critical in guaranteeing the endurance of a business after a disaster.â

Importance of Scientific Knowlege for Students Essay

Significance of Scientific Knowlege for Students - Essay Example Information put together economies depend with respect to gifted mathematicians and researcher. Nonetheless, America's work power is maturing quick. It has been anticipated that in excess of 20% of researchers and mathematicians are probably going to resign continuously 2010 (Mac Iver 221). This is probably going to result to an inadequacy attributable to the way that less students are seeking after math and science as their professions. The circumstance is additionally intensified by the way that overseers and educators themselves don't have sufficient preparing, capability, apparatuses and aptitudes important for showing Science and Mathematics (Janelle p. 231). In the earlier decades, America has fallen behind in world rankings of countries with understudies procuring math and science degrees and in the creation of gifted specialists. Thusly, United States has been compelled to depend on different nations for talented specialists. For example, specialists are selected from distric ts, for example, Philippines, Sub-Saharan Africa and India. In addition, rising Asian countries like India and South Korea are winning affirmation in the advancement of programming, PC, electronic showcase and capacity innovations. Then again, reliance on science may make individuals unequipped for keeping up their ways of life on the off chance that they keep contingent upon the assets that current science offers, and substitute advancements may be inadequate or might introduce unimaginable dangers. Significance of Science Science and maths have a colossal effect on individuals' lives. They offer the establishment of a lot of contemporary innovation methods in materials, instruments that make work and lives simpler. On the off chance that science and innovation had in no way, shape or form been developed, the world would be incredibly unique. Today, individuals can see live activities in the solace of lounge rooms, convey to companions anyplace on the globe and send messages and different sorts of messages inside a couple of moments. Practically regular, clinical experts spare lives and are equipped for treating and restoring once life terrifying afflictions with the utilization of complex strategies, medications and gear. Disclosures made by researchers help to shape individuals' perspectives about themselves and the universe. From the old Egyptian's logical achievements, to the present changing of living being's inherited cosmetics, the improvement of logical information is a suffering wonder. Science Based Careers From the historical backdrop of humankind, information in math and science has consistently been improving and developing. A lot of what isolates the contemporary method of living from that of cavern abiding progenitors are the developments in science and its related field, arithmetic. Each calling accessible nowadays in United States and past needs some numerical and logical information. Preparing in humanistic investigations isn't almost adequate for a vocation. For example, in any event, cultivating has ended up being very unpredictable. Yields in agribusiness have ascended as researchers constantly grow progressively proficient manures and a superior cluster of plants. As time passes combined with various disclosures in math and science, dominance of new advancements is key to understudies and all constituents of the present

13 Components of Effective Alcohol Treatment Programs

13 Components of Effective Alcohol Treatment Programs More in Addiction Coping and Recovery Methods and Support Overcoming Addiction Personal Stories Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use How can you tell if an alcohol treatment program or facility is effective? What are the components and ingredients of programs that get the best results? Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems, a research-based project at George Washington University Medical Center, reviewed research literature and consulted with professionals in the treatment and rehabilitation industry to identify 13 active ingredients of effective alcohol treatment. Features of Effective Alcohol Treatment Early detection including screening and brief interventions (for non-dependent problem drinkers). The earlier treatment for drinking problems begins, the better the chance for success.Comprehensive Assessment and Individualized Treatment Plan: Treatment for alcoholism and drug abuse is not a one-size-fits-all proposition. Not all patients require the acute care approach.Care Management: Treatment programs need to be carefully managed every step of the way, sometimes involving family members and friends, from the initial assessment through continued follow-up after the intervention program ends.Individually Delivered, Proven Professional Interventions: Several interventions, based on different treatment philosophies, can be effective in reducing alcohol consumption depending on the patients gender, the severity of dependence and motivation to change. Effective treatment programs will offer more than one approach.Contracting With Patients: Also called contingency management or behavior contracting, contracting with patients to reward good behavior and to punish bad behavior can improve treatment outcomes.Social Skills Training: The basis for cognitive behavioral therapy, people with alcohol problems can be taught to recognize stressful situations, in which their drinking has been a problem in the past, and skills to help them cope with those situations.Medications: Medical treatments cannot cure drinking problems, but they can be combined with other interventions and therapies to produce a treatment that is even more effective.Specialized services for medical, psychiatric, employment or family problems. Treatment programs need to be targeted at the individual needs of the patient through problem-to-service matching.Continuing Care: Most who enter treatment have at least one relapse. Follow-up contact, as well as participation in support groups, have both been shown to improve long-term treatment outcomes.A Strong Bond With the Therapist or Counselor: Research sho ws that counselors and therapists who bond with patients through empathy, rather than confrontation, are powerful motivating influences in alcohol treatment.Longer Duration for Alcohol-Dependent Drinkers: How long a patient stays in treatment matters more in most cases than if a patient is treated in an inpatient or outpatient setting. Studies indicate that outpatient treatment lasting less than 90 days results in poorer outcomes.Participation in Support Groups: Project MATCH and other studies in the 1990s definitively proved that participation in support groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, can be an active ingredient of treatmentâ€"  both during a professional intervention and after.Strong Patient Motivation: All approaches to alcoholism recovery depend on the desire of the person to get and remain sober. Effective treatment programs enhance this motivation with intervention and therapy.

13 Components of Effective Alcohol Treatment Programs

13 Components of Effective Alcohol Treatment Programs More in Addiction Coping and Recovery Methods and Support Overcoming Addiction Personal Stories Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use How can you tell if an alcohol treatment program or facility is effective? What are the components and ingredients of programs that get the best results? Ensuring Solutions to Alcohol Problems, a research-based project at George Washington University Medical Center, reviewed research literature and consulted with professionals in the treatment and rehabilitation industry to identify 13 active ingredients of effective alcohol treatment. Features of Effective Alcohol Treatment Early detection including screening and brief interventions (for non-dependent problem drinkers). The earlier treatment for drinking problems begins, the better the chance for success.Comprehensive Assessment and Individualized Treatment Plan: Treatment for alcoholism and drug abuse is not a one-size-fits-all proposition. Not all patients require the acute care approach.Care Management: Treatment programs need to be carefully managed every step of the way, sometimes involving family members and friends, from the initial assessment through continued follow-up after the intervention program ends.Individually Delivered, Proven Professional Interventions: Several interventions, based on different treatment philosophies, can be effective in reducing alcohol consumption depending on the patients gender, the severity of dependence and motivation to change. Effective treatment programs will offer more than one approach.Contracting With Patients: Also called contingency management or behavior contracting, contracting with patients to reward good behavior and to punish bad behavior can improve treatment outcomes.Social Skills Training: The basis for cognitive behavioral therapy, people with alcohol problems can be taught to recognize stressful situations, in which their drinking has been a problem in the past, and skills to help them cope with those situations.Medications: Medical treatments cannot cure drinking problems, but they can be combined with other interventions and therapies to produce a treatment that is even more effective.Specialized services for medical, psychiatric, employment or family problems. Treatment programs need to be targeted at the individual needs of the patient through problem-to-service matching.Continuing Care: Most who enter treatment have at least one relapse. Follow-up contact, as well as participation in support groups, have both been shown to improve long-term treatment outcomes.A Strong Bond With the Therapist or Counselor: Research sho ws that counselors and therapists who bond with patients through empathy, rather than confrontation, are powerful motivating influences in alcohol treatment.Longer Duration for Alcohol-Dependent Drinkers: How long a patient stays in treatment matters more in most cases than if a patient is treated in an inpatient or outpatient setting. Studies indicate that outpatient treatment lasting less than 90 days results in poorer outcomes.Participation in Support Groups: Project MATCH and other studies in the 1990s definitively proved that participation in support groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, can be an active ingredient of treatmentâ€"  both during a professional intervention and after.Strong Patient Motivation: All approaches to alcoholism recovery depend on the desire of the person to get and remain sober. Effective treatment programs enhance this motivation with intervention and therapy.

Database Analysis Database Management System Essay

Databases are fundamentally containers for data. When data for any organization needs to be stored, databases can be used. For example, let’s say a public library stores books, we could say that the library is a database of books. But specifically, databases are computer structures that save, organize, safeguard and produce and/or deliver data. A database platform is essentially a database management system (DBMS) which is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and with the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed in a way to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases1. Before we dive deeper into databases and the types, we need to know the difference between what a database is and what a DBMS is so we don’t confuse ourselves. Database is a collection of related data stored in several different tables, and linked with each other using foreign keys. A DBMS is a Database Management System, is a piece of software that manages databases and lets you create, edit and delete databases, their tables and their data. Examples of a DBMS include, MySQL, MY SQL Server, Oracle, PostgreSQL, and SQLite. When Organizations involved in combining various data sources may well be looking to source a Database Management system. There are various factors to consider during the process. Some of the factors include: 1) Usability – When considering a database, you have toShow MoreRelatedDatabase Analysis : Database Management System1137 Words   |  5 Pages Summary: Database Management System in easy terms we can say that set of data organized in a relative way. It allows data for various entries, storage and retrieval of large quantity of information and provides ways to manage how the information is stored. There is big number of database providers and each different database has its own strength so while choosing a particular database we need to understand what the business requirement is and match them with what DBMS can provide us to make ourRead MoreDatabase Analysis : Database Management System Essay767 Words   |  4 PagesDatabase Security Databases are used to store different types of information, from data on an e-mail account to important data of government agencies. The security of the database inherits the same difficulties of security facing the information, which is to ensure the integrity, availability and confidentiality. Database management system must provide mechanisms that will assist in this task. SQL databases implement mechanisms that restrict or enable access to data according to profiles orRead MoreDatabase Analysis : Database Management System1114 Words   |  5 Pageson database environment and development process. Database is an organized collection of logically related data. It consists of tables, queries, views and other objects. Database management system is a software system used for creating and managing databases. It is a collection of programs used to store, modify and extract information from database. It helps users and programmers for creating updating and managing the data in a s ystematic way. There are many types of database management system rangingRead MoreDatabase Analysis : Database Management System Essay2010 Words   |  9 PagesChoosing A Database Everyday the world progressively moves towards a digital future, and the use of physical data storage, such as files in filing cabinets, are becoming obsolete. Most companies store their information into databases to easily manage and share their data within the organization. A database management system (DBMS) is needed to to create, use and maintain databases for the efficient storage and retrieval of data. Why Choose a Database? Before one can begin to choose a database, it isRead MoreAnalysis of Database Management and Information Retrieval Systems1102 Words   |  5 Pages1. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SYSTEM DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS) INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SYSTEM (IRS) DBMS offer advance Data Modelling Facility (DMF) including Data Definition Language and Data Manipulation Language for modelling and manipulating data. IRS do not offer an advance DMF. Usually data modelling in IRS is restricted to classification of objects. Data Definition Language of DBMS is the capability to define the data integrity constraintsRead MoreAnalysis of Database Management and Information Retrieval Systems992 Words   |  4 Pages1. Functions of a Database Management System Database Management System (DBMS) Information Retrieval System (IRS) †¢ Storage, Access And Provide DBMS provide services such as storage, access and update data in the database. †¢ Acquisition of the necessary and appropriate documents. †¢ Provide Free Catalog DBMS provides a catalog that contains information about the data and catalogs that can be accessed by users. †¢ Preparation and representation of the content of those in documents. †¢ Supports TransactionsRead MoreAnalysis of Database Management and Information Retrieval Systems1117 Words   |  5 PagesDIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL SYSTEM BY FOCUSING ON THEIR FUNCTIONALITIES 2. HIGHLIGHT THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION 3. MAKE APPROPRIATE USE OF DIAGRAMS TO ILLUSTRATE THE UNDERLYING CONCEPTS/COMPONENTS OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL 4. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN STRUCTURED AND NON STRUCTURED DATA. GIVE EXAMPLES FOR EACH. 5. REFERENCES 6. APPENDICES â€Æ' 1. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND INFORMATION RETRIEVALRead MoreAnalysis of Database Management and Information Retrieval Systems1527 Words   |  6 PagesDifferentiate between database management system and information retrieval system by focusing on their functionalities. Answer: What is database management system? Database Management System is a database program. The DBMS manage incoming data, organize it, and provided ways for the data to be modified or extract by users or other programs. This cause, most database software comes with an Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) driver that allows the database to integrate with other databases. For example, commonRead MoreDatabase Analysis : Database Management System933 Words   |  4 PagesA database could be as simple as an alphabetical arrangement of names in an address book or as complex as a database that provides information in a combination of formats. For example a library can be considered a database because a library stores books therefore it is a database of books. But computer databases collect information and organize such to enable efficient retrieval in formats such as electronically, graphically, audibly, statistically or physically; printed on paper. Computers processRead MoreThe Evolution Of The Data Stored Essay1556 Words   |  7 Pagesas technology has seen numerous advancements throughout the past century. In the 1900s databases began as â€Å"computer hard disks† and in 1965, after many other discoveries including voice recognition, â€Å"the US Government plans the world’s first data center to store 742 million tax returns and 175 million sets of fingerprints on magnetic tape.† The evolution of data and how it evolved into forming large databases continues in 1991 when the internet began to pop up and â€Å"digital storage became more cost

Grendel and Obj - 1412 Words

Beowulf Multiple Choice Identify the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. Comprehension The questions below refer to the selections â€Å"from Beowulf, Part One,† â€Å"from Grendel,† â€Å"Life in 999: A Grim Struggle,† and â€Å"from Beowulf, Part Two.† ____ 1. Beowulf slays Grendel in order to — |a. |save Hrothgar and the Danes from the monster | |b. |prevent Grendel from invading the land of the Geats | |c. |keep Herot from being destroyed | |d. |carry off the†¦show more content†¦Beowulf tells Wiglaf that he wants his burned-out funeral pyre to be a — |a. |reminder to his people of his greatness |c. |reminder to Wiglaf of his duties | |b. |monument to King Hrothgar |d. |sign of the new Christian faith | ____ 9. How is the raid on Hrothgar’s hall shown differently in John Gardner’s Grendel than in Beowulf? |a. |In Grendel the monster is not a man-eater. | |b. |The novel Grendel shows the action from the monster’s point of view. | |c. |In Beowulf each victim is individually described. | |d. |Beowulf shows the action from Beowulf’s point of view. | ____ 10. What aspect of Anglo-Saxon life discussed in â€Å"Life in 999: A Grim Struggle† is also in full view in Beowulf? |a. |There was no sugar and few spices. | |b. |Vitamin deficiencies and diseases were rampant. | |c. |The population was growing, but farm labor was

Anna Freud Free Essays

string(148) " was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development\." Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud. Born in Vienna, she followed the path of her father and contributed to the newly born field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology: as her father put it, child analysis ‘had received a powerful impetus through â€Å"the work of Frau Melanie Klein and of my daughter, Anna Freud†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ. We will write a custom essay sample on Anna Freud or any similar topic only for you Order Now Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially. The Vienna years Anna Freud appears to have had a comparatively unhappy childhood, in which she ‘never made a close or pleasureable relationship with her mother, and was really nurtured by their Catholic nurse Josephine’. She had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud (as well as troubles with her cousin Sonja Trierweiler, a â€Å"bad influence† on her). Her sister, Sophie, who was the more attractive child, represented a threat in the struggle for the affection of their father: ‘the two young Freuds developed their version of a common sisterly division of territories: â€Å"beauty† and â€Å"brains†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ, and their father once spoke of her ‘age-old jealousy of Sophie’. As well as this rivalry between the two sisters, Anna had other difficulties growing up – ‘a somewhat troubled youngster who complained to her father in candid letters how all sorts of unreasonable thoughts and feelings plagued her’. It seems that ‘in general, she was relentlessly competitive with her siblings†¦ nd was repeatedly sent to health farms for thorough rest, salutary walks, and some extra pounds to fill out her all too slender shape’: she may have suffered from a depression which caused eating disorders. The relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her fa mily; they were very close. She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899: ‘Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness’. Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school; instead she learned from her father and his guests at home. This was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work: a dream she had ‘at the age of nineteen months†¦ [appeared in] The Interpretation of Dreams, and commentators have noted how ‘in the dream of little Anna†¦ little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects’. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912. Suffering from a depression, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. Subsequently, she went to Italy to stay with her grandmother, and there is evidence that ‘In 1914 she travelled alone to England to improve her English’, but was forced to leave shortly after arriving because war was declared. In 1914 she passed the test to be a trainee at her old school, the Cottage Lyceum. From 1915 to 1917, she was a trainee, and then a teacher from 1917 to 1920. She finally quit her teaching career because of tuberculosis. In 1918, her father started psychoanalysis on her and she became seriously involved with this new profession. Her analysis was completed in 1922 and thereupon she presented the paper â€Å"The Relation of Beating Fantasies to a Daydream† to the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, subsequently becoming a member. In 1923, Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and conferences on the subject. In 1935, Freud became director of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Training Institute and in the following year she published her influential study of the â€Å"ways and means by which the ego wards off displeasure and anxiety†, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. It became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis’ intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany. Her father’s health had deteriorated severely due to jaw cancer, so she had to organize the family’s emigration to London. Here she continued her work and took care of her father, who finally died in the autumn of 1939. When Anna arrived in London, a conflict came to a head between her and Melanie Klein regarding developmental theories of children, culminating in the Controversial discussions. The war gave Freud opportunity to observe the effect of deprivation of parental care on children. She set up a centre for young war victims, called â€Å"The Hampstead War Nursery†. Here the children got foster care although mothers were encouraged to visit as often as possible. The underlying idea was to give children the opportunity to form attachments by providing continuity of relationships. This was continued, after the war, at the Bulldogs Bank Home, which was an orphanage, run by colleagues of Freud, that took care of children who survived concentration camps. Based on these observations Anna published a series of studies with her longtime friend, Dorothy Burlingham-Tiffany on the impact of stress on children and the ability to find substitute affections among peers when parents cannot give them. In 1947, Freud and Kate Friedlaender established the Hampstead Child Therapy Courses. Five years later, a children’s clinic was added. Here they worked with Freud’s theory of thedevelopmental lines. Furthermore Freud started lecturing on child psychology: Siegfried Bernfeld and August Aichorn, who both had practical experience of dealing with children, were among her mentors in this. From the 1950s until the end of her life Freud travelled regularly to the United States to lecture, to teach and to visit friends. During the 1970s she was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development. You read "Anna Freud" in category "Essay examples" At Yale Law School, she taught seminars on crime and the family: this led to a transatlantic collaboration with Joseph Goldstein and Albert Solnit on children and the law, published as Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973). Freud died in London on 9 October 1982. She was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and her ashes placed in a marble shelf next to her parents’ ancient Greek funeral urn. Her lifelong friend Dorothy Burlingham and several other members of the Freud family also rest there. One year after Freud’s death a publication of her collected works appeared. She was mentioned as â€Å"a passionate and inspirational teacher† and in 1984 the Hampstead Clinic was renamed the Anna Freud Centre. Furthermore her home in London for forty years was in 1986, as she had wished, transformed into the Freud Museum, dedicated to her father and the psychoanalytical society. Major contributions to psychoanalysis Anna Freud’s first article, ‘on beating fantasies, drew in part on her own inner life, but th[at]†¦ made her contribution no less scientific’. In it she explained how ‘Daydreaming, which consciously may be designed to suppress masturbation, is mainly unconsciously an elaboration of the original masturbatory fantasies’. Freud had earlier covered very similar ground in ‘†A Child is Being Beaten†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ – ‘they both used material from her analysis as clinical illustration in their sometimes complementary papers’ – in which he highlighted a female case where ‘an elaborate superstructure of day-dreams, which was of great significance for the life of the person concerned, had grown up over the masochistic beating-phantasy†¦ one] which almost rose to the level of a work of art’. ‘Her views on child development, which she expounded in 1927 in her first book, An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis, clashed with those of Melanie Klein†¦ [who] was departing from the developmental schedule that Freud, and his analyst daughter, found most plausible’. In particular, Anna Freud’s belief that ‘In children’s analysis, the transference plays a different role†¦ and the analyst not only â€Å"represents mother† but is still an original second mother in the life of the child’ became something of an orthodoxy over much of the psychoanalytic world. For her next major work in 1936, her ‘classic monograph on ego psychology and defense mechanisms, Anna Freud drew on her own clinical experience, but relied on her father’s writings as the principal and authoritative source of her theoretical insights’. Here her ‘cataloguing of regression, repression, reaction formation, isolation, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal and sublimation’ helped establish the importance of the ego functions and the concept of defense mechanisms, continuing the greater emphasis on the ego of her father — ‘We should like to learn more about the ego’ — during his final decades. Special attention was paid in it to later childhood and adolescent developments — ‘I have always been more attracted to the latency period than the pre-Oedipal phases’ – emphasising how the ‘increased intellectual, scientific, and philosophical interests of this period represent attempts at mastering the drives’. The problem posed by physiological maturation has been stated forcefully by Anna Freud. â€Å"Aggressive impulses are intensified to the point of complete unruliness, hunger becomes voracity†¦ The reaction-formations, which seemed to be firmly established in the structure of the ego, threaten to fall to pieces†. Selma Fraiberg’s tribute of 1959 that ‘The writings of Anna Freud on ego psychology and her studies in early child development have illuminated the world of childhood for workers in the most varied professions and have been for me my introduction and most valuable guide spoke at that time for most of psychoanalysis outside the Kleinian heartland. Arguably, however, it was in Anna Freud’s London years ‘that she wrote her most distinguished psychoanalytic papers — including â€Å"About Losing and Being Lost†, which everyone should read regardless of their interest in psychoanalysis’. Her description therein of ‘simultaneous urges to remain loyal to the dead and to turn towards new ties with the living’ may perhaps reflect her own mourning process after her father’s recent death. Focusing thereafter on research, observation and treatment of children, Anna Freud established a group of prominent child developmental analysts (which included Erik Erikson, Edith Jacobson and Margaret Mahler) who noticed that children’s symptoms were ultimately analogue to personality disorders among adults and thus often related to developmental stages. Her book Normality and Pathology in Childhood (1965) summarised ‘the use of developmental lines charting theoretical normal growth â€Å"from dependency to emotional self-reliance†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ. Through these then revolutionary ideas Anna provided us with a comprehensive developmental theory and the concept of developmental lines, which combined her father’s important drive model with more recent object relations theories emphasizing the importance of parents in child development processes. Nevertheless her basic loyalty to her father’s work remained unimpaired, and it might indeed be said that ‘she devoted her life to protecting her father’s legacy†¦ In her theoretical work there would be little criticism of him, and she would make what is still the finest contribution to the psychoanalytic understanding of passivity’, or what she termed ‘altruistic surrender†¦ excessive concern and anxiety for the lives of his love objects’. Jacques Lacan called ‘Anna Freud the plumb line of psychoanalysis. Well, the plumb line doesn’t make a building†¦ but] it allows us to gauge the vertical of certain problems’; and by preserving so much of Freud’s legacy and standards she may indeed have served as something of a living yardstick. With psychoanalysis continuing to move away from classical Freudianism to other concerns, it may still be salutary to heed Anna Freud’s warning about the potential los s of her father’s ’emphasis on conflict within the individual person, the aims, ideas and ideals battling with the drives to keep the individual within a civilized community. It has become modern to water this down to every individual’s longing for perfect unity with his mother†¦ There is an enormous amount that gets lost this way’. About essential personal qualities in psychoanalysts â€Å"Dear John †¦ , You asked me what I consider essential personal qualities in a future psychoanalyst. The answer is comparatively simple. If you want to be a real psychoanalyst you have to have a great love of the truth, scientific truth as well as personal truth, and you have to place this appreciation of truth higher than any discomfort at meeting unpleasant facts, whether they belong to the world outside or to your own inner person. Further, I think that a psychoanalyst should have†¦ interests†¦ beyond the limits of the medical field†¦ in facts that belong to sociology, religion, literature, [and] history,†¦ [otherwise] his outlook on†¦ his patient will remain too narrow. This point contains†¦ the necessary preparations beyond the requirements made on candidates of psychoanalysis in the institutes. You ought to be a great reader and become acquainted with the literature of many countries and cultures. In the great literary figures you will find people who know at least as much of human nature as the psychiatrists and psychologists try to do. Does that answer your question? † In perhaps not dissimilar vein, she wrote in 1954 that ‘With due respect for the necessary strictest handling and interpretation of the transference, I feel still that we should leave room somewhere for the realization that analyst and patient are also two real people, of equal adult status, in a real personal relationship to each other. How to cite Anna Freud, Essay examples Anna Freud Free Essays string(148) " was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development\." Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud. Born in Vienna, she followed the path of her father and contributed to the newly born field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology: as her father put it, child analysis ‘had received a powerful impetus through â€Å"the work of Frau Melanie Klein and of my daughter, Anna Freud†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ. We will write a custom essay sample on Anna Freud or any similar topic only for you Order Now Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially. The Vienna years Anna Freud appears to have had a comparatively unhappy childhood, in which she ‘never made a close or pleasureable relationship with her mother, and was really nurtured by their Catholic nurse Josephine’. She had difficulties getting along with her siblings, specifically with her sister Sophie Freud (as well as troubles with her cousin Sonja Trierweiler, a â€Å"bad influence† on her). Her sister, Sophie, who was the more attractive child, represented a threat in the struggle for the affection of their father: ‘the two young Freuds developed their version of a common sisterly division of territories: â€Å"beauty† and â€Å"brains†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ, and their father once spoke of her ‘age-old jealousy of Sophie’. As well as this rivalry between the two sisters, Anna had other difficulties growing up – ‘a somewhat troubled youngster who complained to her father in candid letters how all sorts of unreasonable thoughts and feelings plagued her’. It seems that ‘in general, she was relentlessly competitive with her siblings†¦ nd was repeatedly sent to health farms for thorough rest, salutary walks, and some extra pounds to fill out her all too slender shape’: she may have suffered from a depression which caused eating disorders. The relationship between Anna and her father was different from the rest of her fa mily; they were very close. She was a lively child with a reputation for mischief. Freud wrote to his friend Wilhelm Fliess in 1899: ‘Anna has become downright beautiful through naughtiness’. Freud is said to refer to her in his diaries more than others in the family. Later on Anna Freud would say that she didn’t learn much in school; instead she learned from her father and his guests at home. This was how she picked up Hebrew, German, English, French and Italian. At the age of 15, she started reading her father’s work: a dream she had ‘at the age of nineteen months†¦ [appeared in] The Interpretation of Dreams, and commentators have noted how ‘in the dream of little Anna†¦ little Anna only hallucinates forbidden objects’. Anna finished her education at the Cottage Lyceum in Vienna in 1912. Suffering from a depression, she was very insecure about what to do in the future. Subsequently, she went to Italy to stay with her grandmother, and there is evidence that ‘In 1914 she travelled alone to England to improve her English’, but was forced to leave shortly after arriving because war was declared. In 1914 she passed the test to be a trainee at her old school, the Cottage Lyceum. From 1915 to 1917, she was a trainee, and then a teacher from 1917 to 1920. She finally quit her teaching career because of tuberculosis. In 1918, her father started psychoanalysis on her and she became seriously involved with this new profession. Her analysis was completed in 1922 and thereupon she presented the paper â€Å"The Relation of Beating Fantasies to a Daydream† to the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society, subsequently becoming a member. In 1923, Freud began her own psychoanalytical practice with children and two years later she was teaching at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Training Institute on the technique of child analysis. From 1925 until 1934, she was the Secretary of the International Psychoanalytical Association while she continued child analysis and seminars and conferences on the subject. In 1935, Freud became director of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Training Institute and in the following year she published her influential study of the â€Å"ways and means by which the ego wards off displeasure and anxiety†, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. It became a founding work of ego psychology and established Freud’s reputation as a pioneering theoretician. In 1938 the Freuds had to flee from Austria as a consequence of the Nazis’ intensifying harassment of Jews in Vienna following the Anschluss by Germany. Her father’s health had deteriorated severely due to jaw cancer, so she had to organize the family’s emigration to London. Here she continued her work and took care of her father, who finally died in the autumn of 1939. When Anna arrived in London, a conflict came to a head between her and Melanie Klein regarding developmental theories of children, culminating in the Controversial discussions. The war gave Freud opportunity to observe the effect of deprivation of parental care on children. She set up a centre for young war victims, called â€Å"The Hampstead War Nursery†. Here the children got foster care although mothers were encouraged to visit as often as possible. The underlying idea was to give children the opportunity to form attachments by providing continuity of relationships. This was continued, after the war, at the Bulldogs Bank Home, which was an orphanage, run by colleagues of Freud, that took care of children who survived concentration camps. Based on these observations Anna published a series of studies with her longtime friend, Dorothy Burlingham-Tiffany on the impact of stress on children and the ability to find substitute affections among peers when parents cannot give them. In 1947, Freud and Kate Friedlaender established the Hampstead Child Therapy Courses. Five years later, a children’s clinic was added. Here they worked with Freud’s theory of thedevelopmental lines. Furthermore Freud started lecturing on child psychology: Siegfried Bernfeld and August Aichorn, who both had practical experience of dealing with children, were among her mentors in this. From the 1950s until the end of her life Freud travelled regularly to the United States to lecture, to teach and to visit friends. During the 1970s she was concerned with the problems of emotionally deprived and socially disadvantaged children, and she studied deviations and delays in development. You read "Anna Freud" in category "Papers" At Yale Law School, she taught seminars on crime and the family: this led to a transatlantic collaboration with Joseph Goldstein and Albert Solnit on children and the law, published as Beyond the Best Interests of the Child (1973). Freud died in London on 9 October 1982. She was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium and her ashes placed in a marble shelf next to her parents’ ancient Greek funeral urn. Her lifelong friend Dorothy Burlingham and several other members of the Freud family also rest there. One year after Freud’s death a publication of her collected works appeared. She was mentioned as â€Å"a passionate and inspirational teacher† and in 1984 the Hampstead Clinic was renamed the Anna Freud Centre. Furthermore her home in London for forty years was in 1986, as she had wished, transformed into the Freud Museum, dedicated to her father and the psychoanalytical society. Major contributions to psychoanalysis Anna Freud’s first article, ‘on beating fantasies, drew in part on her own inner life, but th[at]†¦ made her contribution no less scientific’. In it she explained how ‘Daydreaming, which consciously may be designed to suppress masturbation, is mainly unconsciously an elaboration of the original masturbatory fantasies’. Freud had earlier covered very similar ground in ‘†A Child is Being Beaten†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ – ‘they both used material from her analysis as clinical illustration in their sometimes complementary papers’ – in which he highlighted a female case where ‘an elaborate superstructure of day-dreams, which was of great significance for the life of the person concerned, had grown up over the masochistic beating-phantasy†¦ one] which almost rose to the level of a work of art’. ‘Her views on child development, which she expounded in 1927 in her first book, An Introduction to the Technique of Child Analysis, clashed with those of Melanie Klein†¦ [who] was departing from the developmental schedule that Freud, and his analyst daughter, found most plausible’. In particular, Anna Freud’s belief that ‘In children’s analysis, the transference plays a different role†¦ and the analyst not only â€Å"represents mother† but is still an original second mother in the life of the child’ became something of an orthodoxy over much of the psychoanalytic world. For her next major work in 1936, her ‘classic monograph on ego psychology and defense mechanisms, Anna Freud drew on her own clinical experience, but relied on her father’s writings as the principal and authoritative source of her theoretical insights’. Here her ‘cataloguing of regression, repression, reaction formation, isolation, undoing, projection, introjection, turning against the self, reversal and sublimation’ helped establish the importance of the ego functions and the concept of defense mechanisms, continuing the greater emphasis on the ego of her father — ‘We should like to learn more about the ego’ — during his final decades. Special attention was paid in it to later childhood and adolescent developments — ‘I have always been more attracted to the latency period than the pre-Oedipal phases’ – emphasising how the ‘increased intellectual, scientific, and philosophical interests of this period represent attempts at mastering the drives’. The problem posed by physiological maturation has been stated forcefully by Anna Freud. â€Å"Aggressive impulses are intensified to the point of complete unruliness, hunger becomes voracity†¦ The reaction-formations, which seemed to be firmly established in the structure of the ego, threaten to fall to pieces†. Selma Fraiberg’s tribute of 1959 that ‘The writings of Anna Freud on ego psychology and her studies in early child development have illuminated the world of childhood for workers in the most varied professions and have been for me my introduction and most valuable guide spoke at that time for most of psychoanalysis outside the Kleinian heartland. Arguably, however, it was in Anna Freud’s London years ‘that she wrote her most distinguished psychoanalytic papers — including â€Å"About Losing and Being Lost†, which everyone should read regardless of their interest in psychoanalysis’. Her description therein of ‘simultaneous urges to remain loyal to the dead and to turn towards new ties with the living’ may perhaps reflect her own mourning process after her father’s recent death. Focusing thereafter on research, observation and treatment of children, Anna Freud established a group of prominent child developmental analysts (which included Erik Erikson, Edith Jacobson and Margaret Mahler) who noticed that children’s symptoms were ultimately analogue to personality disorders among adults and thus often related to developmental stages. Her book Normality and Pathology in Childhood (1965) summarised ‘the use of developmental lines charting theoretical normal growth â€Å"from dependency to emotional self-reliance†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ. Through these then revolutionary ideas Anna provided us with a comprehensive developmental theory and the concept of developmental lines, which combined her father’s important drive model with more recent object relations theories emphasizing the importance of parents in child development processes. Nevertheless her basic loyalty to her father’s work remained unimpaired, and it might indeed be said that ‘she devoted her life to protecting her father’s legacy†¦ In her theoretical work there would be little criticism of him, and she would make what is still the finest contribution to the psychoanalytic understanding of passivity’, or what she termed ‘altruistic surrender†¦ excessive concern and anxiety for the lives of his love objects’. Jacques Lacan called ‘Anna Freud the plumb line of psychoanalysis. Well, the plumb line doesn’t make a building†¦ but] it allows us to gauge the vertical of certain problems’; and by preserving so much of Freud’s legacy and standards she may indeed have served as something of a living yardstick. With psychoanalysis continuing to move away from classical Freudianism to other concerns, it may still be salutary to heed Anna Freud’s warning about the potential los s of her father’s ’emphasis on conflict within the individual person, the aims, ideas and ideals battling with the drives to keep the individual within a civilized community. It has become modern to water this down to every individual’s longing for perfect unity with his mother†¦ There is an enormous amount that gets lost this way’. About essential personal qualities in psychoanalysts â€Å"Dear John †¦ , You asked me what I consider essential personal qualities in a future psychoanalyst. The answer is comparatively simple. If you want to be a real psychoanalyst you have to have a great love of the truth, scientific truth as well as personal truth, and you have to place this appreciation of truth higher than any discomfort at meeting unpleasant facts, whether they belong to the world outside or to your own inner person. Further, I think that a psychoanalyst should have†¦ interests†¦ beyond the limits of the medical field†¦ in facts that belong to sociology, religion, literature, [and] history,†¦ [otherwise] his outlook on†¦ his patient will remain too narrow. This point contains†¦ the necessary preparations beyond the requirements made on candidates of psychoanalysis in the institutes. You ought to be a great reader and become acquainted with the literature of many countries and cultures. In the great literary figures you will find people who know at least as much of human nature as the psychiatrists and psychologists try to do. Does that answer your question? † In perhaps not dissimilar vein, she wrote in 1954 that ‘With due respect for the necessary strictest handling and interpretation of the transference, I feel still that we should leave room somewhere for the realization that analyst and patient are also two real people, of equal adult status, in a real personal relationship to each other. How to cite Anna Freud, Papers

Hms Challenger Journal free essay sample

The ship set sail from Portsmouth, England early yesterday morning and we have been sailing for almost a whole 24 hours; Im assuming were about 40 degrees north of the equator. Its a perfect day out for sailing, the water is crystal blue, my hair Is softly blowing though the wind, and theres not a cloud In sight. Today my job was to use a dredge. A dredge takes samples along the surface of the seafloor while being dragged across the bottom. I didnt have much luck today finding large organisms other than a few normal fish, but we did bring up some mud with Insects living In It.The Insects were tiny seemed to have been feeding on the mud. They looked to be worms with legs. Only much slimmer than worms Day 2- January 10th 1873 Its my day off: weve landed at the island of Tristan Dachas. We will write a custom essay sample on Hms Challenger Journal or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Its a beautiful island with perfect weather conditions. It felt good to finally be back on dry land. Our ship has run out of food so I volunteered to go look for food. We had men fishing, men hunting, and men looking for food thats been growing. I was searching for grown food when I came across a spring of fresh water.I knew we were running low on rest water so I ran back to the ship, brought some help and hauled tons of drinking water to the ship. When we got back the captain had our meal ready, it wasnt much but at least it was something. All we had was fish to eat but there was plenty enough there to feed the crew. The fish was gray in color with a bunch of black dots on the upper half of the body. Coming down the side of the fish looked to be a reddish almost pink stripe. Day 3- January 1873 While was prepping the ship to set sail again before the rain comes, something strange happened.Out of nowhere I was stung by a Jelly fish on my foot. I thought nothing of it; I Just figured it was Just a sting. I finished the last minute preparations and hobbled my way back to the ship to tell the captain. He poured some water over the Infected area while I rested. Then I became nauseous, I poked my head over board to vomit. After five minutes of puking I sat back down. The pain had gotten worse to the point where It was almost unbearable. The weather was horrible at this time, lightning, thunder, and strong gusts of wind. It was 11 oclock In the morning but looked almost to be night time.I lay down In my bed all day long, with vomiting ND diarrhea. There was nothing more for me to do. We had no remedies for the sting or the Illness. Its Just a matter of time till Im better. Hams Challenger Journal By kicked of the equator. Its a perfect day out for sailing, the water is crystal blue, my hair is softly blowing though the wind, and theres not a cloud in sight. Today my Job was to other than a few normal fish, but we did bring up some mud with insects living in it. The insects were tiny seemed to have been feeding on the mud. They looked to be Its my day off; weve landed at the island of Tristan Dachas.Its a beautiful island eater to the ship. When we got back the captain had our meal ready, it wasnt much Day 3- January 11th 1873 While I was prepping the ship to set sail again before the rain comes, something the infected area while I rested. Then I became nauseous, I poked my head over worse to the point where it was almost unbearable. The weather was horrible at this time, lightning, thunder, and strong gusts of wind. It was 11 oclock in the morning but looked almost to be night time. I lay down in my bed all day long, with vomiting sting or the illness. Its Just a matter of time till Im better.

Cloning Humans Essays - Cloning, Molecular Biology, Genetics

Cloning Humans Cloning humans has recently become a possibility that seems much more feasible in today's society than it was twenty years ago. It is a method that involves the production of a group of identical cells or organisms that all derive from a single individual (Grolier 220). It is not known when or how cloning humans really became a possibility, but it is known that there are two possible ways that we can clone humans. The first way involves splitting an embryo into several halves and creating many new individuals from that embryo. The second method of cloning a human involves taking cells from an already existing human being and cloning them, in turn creating other individuals that are identical to that particular person. With these two methods almost at our fingertips, we must ask ourselves two very important questions: Can we do this, and should we? There is no doubt that many problems involving the technological and ethical sides of this issue will arise and will be virtually impossible to avoid, but the overall idea of cloning humans is one that we should accept as a possible reality for the future. Cloning presents as much a moral problem as a technical problem. Cloning is an affront to religious sensibilities; it seems like "playing God," and interfering with the natural process. There are, of course, more logical objections, regarding susceptibility to disease, expense, and diversity. Others are worried about the abuses of cloning. Cloning appears to be a powerful force that can be exploited to produce horrendous results. Cloning may reduce genetic variability, Producing many clones runs the risk of creating a population that is entirely the same. This population would be susceptible to the same diseases, and one disease could devastate the entire population. One can easily picture humans being wiped out be a single virus, however, less drastic, but more probable events could occur from a lack of genetic diversity. For example, if a large percentage of an nation's cattle are identical clones, a virus, such as a particular strain of mad cow disease, could effect the entire population. The result could be catastrophic food shortages in that nation. Cloning may cause people to settle for the best existing animals, not allowing for improvement of the species. In this way, cloning could potentially interfere with natural evolution. Cloning is currently an expensive process. Cloning requires large amounts of money and biological expertise. Ian Wilmut and his associates required 277 tries before producing Dolly. A new cloning technique has recently been developed which is far more reliable. However, even this technique has 2-3% success rate. There is a risk of disease transfer between transgenic animals and the animal from which the transgenes were derived. If an animal producing drugs in its milk becomes infected by a virus, the animal may transmit the virus to a patient using the drug. Any research into human cloning would eventually need to be tested on human. The ability to clone humans may lead to the genetic tailoring of offspring. The heart of the cloning debate is concerned with the genetic manipulation of a human embryo before it begins development. It is conceivable that scientists could alter a baby's genetic code to give the individual a certain color of eyes or genetic resistance to certain diseases. This is viewed as inappropriate tampering with "Mother Nature" by many ethicists. Because clones are derived from an existing adult cell, it has older genes. Will the clone's life expectancy be shorter because of this? Despite this concern, so far, all clones have appeared to be perfectly normal creatures. A "genetic screening test" could be used to eliminate zygotes of a particular gender, without requiring a later abortion. Cloning might be used to create a "perfect human," or one with above normal strength and sub-normal intelligence, a genetic underclass. Also, if cloning is perfected in humans, there would be no genetic need for men. Cloning might have a detrimental effect on familial relationships. A child born from an adult DNA cloning of his father could be considered a delayed identical twin of one of his parents. It is unknown as to how a human might react if he or she knew he or she was an exact duplicate of an older individual. Supporters of cloning feel that with the careful continuation of research, the technological benefits of cloning clearly outweigh the possible social consequences. In their minds, final products of cloning, like farm animals, and laboratory mice will not be the most important achievement. The applications of cloning

Factors led to American Revolution Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

Factors led to American Revolution Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers 11/19/2015 HIST 131-007 Dr. Adeyinka Banwo Factors led to American Revolution The connection between Britain and the English colonies was that of the ruling of the colonies by the king of Britain, King George III and his parliament. The kings ruling was very unfavorable for the colonists because of his tyrannical dictatorship and unjustly taxations. The thought of an island ruling an entire continent thousands of miles away with poor communication and lack of supervision of the colonies by the king, did not work in favor of the colonies nor for Britain. Three contributing factors for the outbreak of the American Revolution were the kings taxes and neglect of the 13 colonies. King George III and his decisions were one of the major causes that had the English colonists fumed with anger towards Britain and this eventually led to the American Revolution. King Georges Taxes The first reason of the American Revolution was the colonists outrage over taxation which led to a tax revolt launched by people who were tired of the burden of paying unfair taxes. In 1754, the British fought the French for the final of four wars which were the French and Indian War. It was a fight to see who would rule in North America, and it was won by the British. Despite their victory, the British were deep into debt, and they taxed the colonies to raise their budget. In 1765, the Quartering Act and the Stamp Tax brought uproar from the colonists. The Quartering Act forced the colonists to house and feed British Soldiers with no additional money given to them. Many of the colonists didn't have the money to feed the soldiers, so it caused them to go into debt which affected the financial side of the communities because they were so poor. After the Quartering Act, the British brought on the Stamp Tax that was the first direct tax on the colonists. A group known as the Sons of Liberty was formed and they led a boycott against the British taxing claiming that there should be "no taxation without representation". The tax changed the economics of the colonies, causing them to lose money rapidly, but the boycott came back in retaliation against the British. Because the British were no longer getting money from the colonists to pay off their debt, their finances were suffering, triggering the repeal of the tax. In 1767, British Parliament passed Townsend Acts on the colonists tea, paper, paint, lead, glass, and many other items that were used daily and the colonists were against this taxing. The purpose of the Townsend Acts was to help pay the cost of government in America. The problem for many American colonists was that the colonies were not consulted about the new taxes, as they had no representation in Parliament. The colonists did not have any voting rights to the taxes, so to avoid pay the taxes, the colonists boycotted British goods, and the event led to the Boston Tea Party and other boycotts. Neglect of the 13 Colonies and First Continental Congress The next reason of the American Revolution was the neglect of the 13 colonies from the Britain King George. King George took away their rights to self-government in America and the colonists were treated unfairly in comparison to the British people. Because of the kings refusal to abide by the laws, it made it easier for the colonists to rebel against the king and the Parliament. The colonists were not offered the same rights and privileges as the English citizens in Britain. The English citizens from Britain were offered appropriate taxation, benefits of trial by jury, control over private homes as in where a soldier could not barge in to sleep and much more. The pamphleteer and journalist Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense that became a success in large part. It acknowledged the constitutional context of the dispute between Britain and the colonies, crushed that perspective because as long as Americans remained within it, it would imprison them and prevent them from taking the independence. Therefore, Paine destroyed the importance of the British constitutional system as a guarantor of liberty and as consistent with reason and human needs. Addition, he transformed the argument

Challenges and opportunities arising from the expansion of the Essay

Challenges and opportunities arising from the expansion of the European Union - Essay Example e significant changes in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1992 and this momentous event has had numerous ramifications for this multilateral organization. How should the EU expand? Should it continue to move eastward towards the former Yugoslavia or even expand towards Istanbul? Can a majority-Muslim country, i.e. Turkey, actually be European? Seeking to address these questions and many more with respect to European growth in the twenty-first century, the following will provide a comprehensive overview of a fascinating phenomenon. After the fall of communism and state-sponsored socialism at the end of the twenty-first century, the European Union has had to face many challenges dealing with integration and potential enlargement. This essay will explore the demand for eastern growth within the EU and look at the consequences, both intended and unintended of enlargement. The focus will be on Turkey and the ramifications of this controversial expansion. Following this, thi s essay will conclude with broad prescriptions for the future growth of what remains the most powerful multilateral political organization on the planet (Warleigh 2004). The European Union is a multilateral political body composed of a variety of different states, found throughout continental Europe and within the European region. While the composition of each member state differs from a social, political or economic perspective, the members of the EU share a common bond and common values such as pluralism, democracy and the belief is collective negotiation to achieve regional aims. Accordingly, multilateralism is an important feature of the modern EU, and numerous different interests – national as well as regional – are represented within an overarching transnational political framework. Significantly, the EU’s multilateral political framework insures that all member states subscribe to commonly-held principles such as democracy and at its base, capitalist economic

Breakdown of IT during Hurricane Katrina Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Breakdown of IT during Hurricane Katrina - Essay Example They want to pool their knowledge and interpretations of the situation, understand what resources are available, assess options, plan responses, decide, commit, act, and coordinate. The heart of the network is the communication system they use and the ways they interact within it" (16). There are five elements that make up an HFN which includes "(1) a network of people established rapidly (2) from different communities, (3) working together in a shared conversation space (4) in which they plan, commit to, and execute actions, to (5) fulfil a large, urgent mission" (Denning, 16-17). The basis for forming an HFN for quick responses to emergencies or an urgent task, then disbanding the entire group upon completion of the desired outcome is not an entirely new concept as historically, an HFN has become a necessity in such devastating events such as: "(1) the September 11, 2001 World Trade Center attack that took 2,749 lives which resulted in severe economic impact, especially to airlines, and a stock market loss of $1.2 trillion, (2) the December 26, 2004 tsunami from a 9.1 earthquake that took over 283,000 lives, (3) the August 29, 2005 category-5 hurricane Katrina, which knocked out electric and communication infrastructure, over 90,000 square miles of Louisiana and Mississippi and displacing 1.5 million people" (Denning, 15) No matterNo matter the severity of the disasters and the impact on economic and environmental containments, there is an important moot point to be made: the "quality of the response depends not on response planning or on new equipment, but on the quality of the network that came together to provide relief" (Denning, 15) This type of response is not simply limited to what and how quickly relief was provided but also in how quickly the infrastructure response was mobilized. This infrastructure response includes restoration of voice and data communications, medical needs, etc. which are indirectly tied to the victims or those who are affected by natural disaster events. There are three categories that have been awarded when an HFN will respond and are broken down in the following table (Table 1): Category Characteristics Examples K: Known Know what to do Use existing network structures May choose not to respond Fast response team for time-critical business problem or opportunity KU: Known/Unknown Know what to do Don't know time or place Responding network structure known Local fire, small earthquake, civil unrest, military campaigns UU: Unknown / Unknown Don't know what to do Don't know time or place Responding network structure unknown 9/11 attack, other terrorist attacks, large earthquake, major natural disasters (Note: KU events can become UU events when scaled up to large areas or populations) Table 1: Kinds of events requiring response from hastily formed networks1 To further explain the category challenges, "the first category is the easiest and the least likely to stress the HFN; the middle category is the type that emergency agencies such as police and fire departments prepare for; but, the third category challenges are more defined as: Genuine surprise: the precipitating event is in no known category. There has been no advanced planning, training, or positioning equipment Chaos: everyone is

Cross Culture Affects The Global Fast Foods

Cross Culture Affects The Global Fast Foods Michel Camdessus, former managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) said that: Globalization is simply the continuation of the trend toward greater international economic integration that has been under way for the last fifty years. The difference is that todays markets are larger, more complex, and more closely integrated than ever before. And now capital moves at a speed and in volumes that would have been inconceivable a few decades ago. (Walker, Walker, Schmitz, 2003, p.2). One could surely argue that, globalisation as defined by our contemporary experience, is a continuation of a historical evolution that has been underway for at least the past five hundred years, with European colonialisation and imperialism leading to a dynamic between parochial tribalism and global commerce that frames the modern state of affairs- a dialectical dynamic that Benjamin Barber (1996) fittingly calls Jihad vs. McWorld. As stated by Elmer (2003), Stepping out and fitting in around the world is what multinationals brand of companies are doing to conquer new markets and to be sustainable on the long run. The challenge of crossing the border to step out and fit in each and every culture worldwide (Elmer, 2003), and be both a global and a local company is the effort of Fast Food brands like KFC, McDonalds and Nandos. Downs (1993) stated that One of the greatest stumbling blocks to understanding other peoples within or without a particular culture is the tendency to judge others behavior by our own standards. As per Criag Storti (1989. P. 32-34): The more we retreat from the culture and the people the less we learn about them; the less we know about them the more uncomfortable we feel among them; the more uncomfortable we fell among them the more inclined we are to withdraw. Therefore to survive a multinational has to learn about the people of the country they are operating in. Hofstede (1991), Trompenaars (1993), Czinkota and Ronkainen (1993) all agreed that culture is based on languages, economy, religion, policies, social institutions, class, values, status, attitudes, manners, customs, material items, aesthetics and education, which subsequently influences managerial values. The ability of Hofstedes framework to capture more than the individualism-collectivism dimension of culture contributed to its popularity (Sivakuma and Nakata, 2001). According to Hofstede (1980), the uncertainty avoidance dimension deals with the national cultures ability to tolerate ambiguity. Individuals in these high uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to be rigid and dogmatic. They are threatened by unknown situations. Life is perceived to have many risks, and the resultant stress needs to be lessened. So the cultures may rely upon such mechanisms as rules, customs, laws, and religion in pursuit of security. 1.2 Problem Definition With the effect of globalization, it has been noted that many multinational fast food brands are establishing in the Mauritius. After nearly 30 years that KFC implemented itself in Mauritius, we now have an influx of different famous brands of fast foods. Another phenomenon leading to this increase of fast food on the market is the opening of retail outlets like Bagatelle and Cascavelle. Mauritius is known for its history of different ethnic groups and with a diversity of food culture, the question arising is how these companies are able to gain share of the market and how they have adapted themselves to the Mauritian culture. 1.3 The industry understudy This study will be conducted for the Fast Food industry with reference to the following multinational brands: KFC, McDonalds and Nandos. This will enable us to analyse how they are operating and how the importation of American and Portuguese food culture are adapting to our famous Mauritian cuisine:Bryani, Dal puri, Gateaux Piment, Mine Bouille and other typical Mauritian food. 1.4 Aim of research The aim of this research is to investigate how these multinationals are facing the cross cultural barriers and how they have been able to overcome them. 1.5 Objective of Research To identify cross cultural barriers existing in the Mauritian Market and the fast food sector. To analyse how cross culture barriers affects the Marketing strategies of Fast Food Companies To analyse the impact of cross culture on the brand equity of these Multinationals To analyse the impact of the anxiety and uncertainty avoidance theory faced by Fast Food Multinational on the Market. To evaluate how Mauritians has accepted these Multinationals in their culture. 1.6 Research Structure and hypotheses Companies who extend their business abroad have to face a challenge of cross-cultural communication. Bennis and Nanus (1985) refer to Erez (1992) and claim that communication is the only approach by which group members can cooperate with each other toward the goal of organization. In line with this a possible hypothesis is as follows: HYPOTHESIS 1 Ho: Cross cultural barriers have no impact on fast food multinational marketing strategies H1: cross cultural barriers have impact on fast food multinational marketing strategies Steenkamp et al. (2003) found that perceived brand globalness was positively related to perceived quality and prestige. Another hypothesis can be: HYPOTHESIS 2 H3: Cross cultural barriers have no impact on brand equity of fast food multinational marketing strategies H4: Cross cultural barriers have impact on brand equity of fast food multinational marketing strategies Hofstede (1991, p. 116) points out that uncertainty avoidance should not be confused with risk avoidance even more than reducing risk, uncertainty avoidance leads to a reduction of ambiguity. One of hypothesis will show this from the study HYPOTHESIS 3 H5: The anxiety and uncertainty avoidance theory have no impact on Fast foods Multinationals on the Market. H6: The anxiety and uncertainty avoidance theory have impact on Fast foods Multinationals on the Market. Levitt (1983, p. 87) argues that well-managed companies have moved from emphasis on customizing items to offering globally standardized products that are advanced, functional, reliable and low priced. The following hypothesis will try to this point. HYPOTHESIS 4 H7: Mauritian has adopted these Multinational Fast Foods. H8: Mauritian has not adopted these Multinational Fast Foods. 1.7 Structure of the Study The dissertation will comprise of different chapters as outlined below. Chapter 1: Introduction defines the background of the research and outlines the aim and research objectives. It also gives an overview of the structure of the study to be carried out. Chapter 2: Literature Review -presents a detailed account of relevant materials in relation to the subject matter including theories and principles relating to cross-cultural barriers, also in relation to the food and fast foods multinationals. It also emphasizes on Individualism versus collectivism and uncertainty avoidance in relation to Hofstedes cultural framework. Chapter 3: Situation Analysis It provides a brief of the Mauritian Fast food Multinationals and the problem they have encounter to be present on the Market Chapter 4: Methodology defines the basic methods used to carry out this study along with the procedures that are used to analyse and prepare the collected data. It also identifies the problems and limitations during the research. Chapter 5: Analysis Findings Presents an analysis of the data collected together with a discussion. Chapter 6: Recommendations Conclusion provides recommendations to provide a smoother adjustment for the Fast Food Multinationals in view with cross cultural issues. Chapter 2 Literature review Since the very beginning of human history, food has assembled peoples in the way that no any other things have been able to do. No matter whether it was the ancient agora or todays modern day supermarket or restaurant, the market of food has always played a central role in humans lives, communities, communication, and culture (Huddleston et al., 2009; DeJesus and Tian, 2004). Culture is often defined as a system of values as well as a determinant of consumer behavior. Members of a particular culture transform their experiences with their physical and social environments to an abstract level of belief about what is desirable and what is not (Lillis and Tian 2010). Such encoded beliefs, called values, act as a general guide for everyday behaviors, including those pertaining to buying and consumption. Cultural values differ among nations along Hofstedes four dimensions of national character (Emery and Tian, 2003; Hofstede, 1984; Tian, 2002). The growing amount of international business has increased the need to understand consumer behavior from a cross-cultural perspective (Mooij, 2004; Senguder, 2001; Sunderland and Denny, 2007; Tian 2002 a). With the globalisation of markets, marketing research has assumed a truly international character and this trend is likely to continue (Malhotra et al., 1994). Todays Consumers have greater knowledge of the value of various competing offerings. Effective communications may be the most important competitive advantage that firms have to meet diverse consumer needs on a global basis. According to Edmondson (2000), two-thirds of all industries either already operate globally or are in the process of doing so, McDonaldss earns over 62% of its income outside the U.S. For cross-cultural acceptance, Altering and adjusting the marketing mix determinants are essential and vital to suit local tastes, meet special needs and consumers non-identical requirements (Czinkota and Ronnenken, 1995). Growing internationalization of tastes and buying patterns has made the development of global and regional brands more feasible (Doyle, 1994). 2.1 Fast Food Industry and Food culture The fast food revolution essentially had its origins in the US in the mid 1950s and this style of catering has continued to grow there and to spread to most of the rest of the world in the decades since then (Jones et al, 2002, p.41). Schlosser (2001) has suggested that within the US the impact of this revolution has been seen to be particularly pervasive. He argues, for example, that during a relatively brief period of time the fast food industry has helped to transform not only the American diet but also our landscapes, economy, workforce and popular culture. More generally fast food can be seen as a powerful symbol of globalisation and of post-modern society and few countries of the world seem immune to its apparent attractions. McDonaldss, for example, claim to serve 45 million customers every day in 30,000 restaurants in 121 countries around the world (Jones et al, 2002, p.41). Fast food have been defined by Bender and Bender (1995) as a general term used for a limited menu of foods that lend themselves to production-line techniques; suppliers tend to specialize in products such as hamburgers, pizzas, chicken, or sandwiches. Fast food is one which gained acceptance of Indian palate after the multinational fast food players adapted the basic Indian food requirements with vegetarian meals and selected non-vegetarian options excluding beef and pork totally from their menu (Goyal, and Singh, 2007). Carmouche and Kelly (1995) suggested a list of factors that shape the food consumption behavior: social class, gender, age, culture, race, and religion (also considered a cultural factor). Food is one important factor that influences the choice to visit a particular place and affects tourists attitudes, decisions, and behavior (Henderson 2009; Hjalanger and Corigliano 2000). Ample evidence has been found that religion can influence consumer attitude and behavior in general and food purchasing decisions and eating habits in particular (Bonne and Verbeke 2008b). In many societies, religion plays one of the most influential roles in shaping food choices and consumption behavior: the types of food that can be consumed, who should prepare and cook the food at what times, and how and when to eat it. However, different religions have different rules and teachings about food consumption behavior. Followers of religions also differ in observance of these rules: some follow the rules strictly, while others behave with more flexibility, and few may not care at all. Hence, in order to investigate the relationship between food consumption behavior and religion, it is important to give ample consideration to this religious diversity both within and among the followers of each religion. (Maedeh Bon, Mazhar Hussain, 2010) All restaurants of KFC, an American fast-food chain, in France are Halal certified and KFC also serves such food in eight of its British restaurants on a trial basis (The Economist 2009). 2.2 Culture and Cross Culture 2.2.1 Definition of Culture According to Ferraro (1994), the only requirement for culture is to be human is that the people in the world belong to a culture. Marzheuser (1995) stated that culture consists primarily of the symbols and stories people use to communicate their history and values. For Hall (1976), culture is a word which stands for the sum of earned behavior, patterns, attitudes and material things. Culture has been defined as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another (Hofstede, 1980). Beyond individual differences, human dispositions and behaviors are influenced by the norms, beliefs and values of their cultural environment (Triandis, 1989). Furthermore, cultural values shape not only ones behavior, but also ones perceptions of the self and of the social environment (Triandis, 1989). Much insight has been gained from the GLOBE research project (House et al., 2004), where culture was measured both as values of the respondents and in terms of their perceptions of how people deal with collective challenges within their culture. 2.2.2 Cross Culture Okazaki et al (2011) defined global consumer culture positioning as: a brand is associated with a widely understood and recognized set of symbols believed to constitute emerging global consumer cultures. As Simon and Dolan (1997) illustrate; McDonaldss has been very successful with package offers in the USA and in Germany, where a hamburger and fries offered together with a beverage. While Local consumer culture positioning is defined as a strategy that associates the brand with local cultural meanings, reflects the local cultures norms and identities, is portrayed as consumed by local people in the national culture, and/or is depicted as locally produced for local people (e.g., McDonaldss chicken teriyaki ads in Japan). In contrast, foreign consumer culture positioning positions the brand as symbolic of a specific foreign consumer culture (e.g. KFC slogan Finger-lickin good was translated as Eat your fingers off in China). Beyond individual differences, human dispositions and behaviors are influenced by the norms, beliefs and values of their cultural environment (Triandis, 1989). Furthermore, cultural values shape not only ones behavior, but also ones perceptions of the self and of the social environment (Triandis, 1989). Cultural differences have significant impact on our intercultural communication. They are the source of misunderstanding, misinterpretation, anxiety, and uncertainty, which ultimately result in miscommunication (Stephan and Stephan, (2002); Gudykunst (2002); Gudykunst and Lee, (2002). Generally, culture is conceptualised as a shared way of life collectively developed and shared by a group of people and transmitted from generation to generation (Tubbs and Moss, 1994). Culture embodies many complex elements such as beliefs, values, language, political systems, and tools which together give a group its code or characteristics (Griffin (2000); Tubbs and Moss (1994). This code is not impos ed by one individual or an external body. Rather, it is socially constructed (by members that make up the group) and historically transmitted (Philipsen, (1992) and Griffin (2000)). Intercultural communication is thus the exchange of information between well-defined groups of people with significantly different cultures (Barnett and Lee (2002). The process is quite complex in the sense that this exchange of information takes place in a context which is a fusion of significantly different systems. The process also requires conscious attempts by each party at reducing uncertainty about the future behaviour of the other party through an increase in understanding of the other group (Barnett and Lee (2002); Gudykunst, (2002)). For Gudykunst and Lee (2002) and Griffin, (2000) Cultural variability (the extent to which cultures differ) is key to any conceptualisation of intercultural communication. Various studies have examined cultural variability at the level of power distribution (or power distance), uncertainty avoidance, gender roles, face negotiation, individualism-collectivism, and others. Mazneski (1994) opines that cross-cultural awareness facilitates to perform a set task successfully. Berthon (1993) views culture as the results of the human actions and shows the link between the ideas of mental programming and the consequence of behaviour derived from this. Therefore, cross-verging across culture has different aspects such as attitude, communication, conflict and negotiation, performance and compensation, which explain the ethical issues and how to appraise them. Bond and Forgas (1984) concluded that different perceptions, attitudes and biases in different cultures ultimately mould the ethical monochromes across-culture, have a distinct presence ubiquitously. In that light, McFarlin and Sweeney (1998) observe that once you perceive and interpret the behaviour of another person, you often must communicate your feelings or reactions to what took place which is an extension of the ethical base to appraise performance and preference. Ambos and Schlegelmilch (2008) argu e that one culture may support certain type (or types) of organizations rather than other types, and culture differences will eventually influence on the performance of company. International marketers have long realized that products and services frequently must be adapted to the varying needs and preferences of consumers in different countries (Cateora and Graham 2002). As McDonaldss adapted its products in India and has made changes to its menu to cater to local tastes elsewhere in the world. In 1996 McDonaldss launches its first restaurants in India and to respect local custom the menu there did not include beef. Instead, there was a novel item the Maharaja Mac, made with mutton but served in the McDonaldss sesame-seed bun (Rugimbana and Nwankwo, (2003). The goal of marketing management is to create positive identity impressions in the local consumers minds, even if this entails some alteration to the companys global identity expressions. As reported in The Economist (2001), in the fast-food industry, menu offerings are influenced by the prevailing cultural values Maharaja Macs at McDonaldss India, Teriyaki McBurgers at McDonaldss Japan, and Kosher and non-Kosher restaurants in McDonaldss Israel and advertising, outdoor signage, and in-store ephemera need to be in the native language. Restaurant architecture frequently incorporates native motifs and global trade characters can take on a local flavor. A Starbucks in Shanghai has a Ming Dynasty faà §ade and the entrances of some Chinese KFC restaurants are guarded by full-size, fiberglass models of Colonel Sanders who, in his Asian reincarnation, looks a little portly like a Buddha. According to former CEO, Jack Greenberg, localization has contributed to McDonaldss worldwide success (Foreign Policy 2001), although some analysts warn that decentralization has become so pervasive that it threatens to undermine the main pillars of the brand service, quality and cleanliness (The Economist 2001). 2.3 Cross Culture Barriers Hofstede (1991), Trompenaars (1993), and Czinkota and Ronkainen (1993) all agreed that culture is based on languages, economy, religion, policies, social institutions, class, values, status, attitudes, manners, customs, material items, aesthetics and education, which subsequently influences managerial values. Witkowski and Wolfinbarger (2002) found that the relationship between the different components of service quality reliability, empathy, responsiveness, assurance, and tangibles and perceptions of overall service quality varied across both cultures and across service settings. 2.3.1 Language Language is the key to the heart of a culture, so related are language and culture that language holds the power to maintain national or cultural identity. Victor (1992) noted that there are at least 2, 796 languages spoken on planet earth. According to Rubin (1992), language is a set of characters or elements and rules for their use in relation to one another and as described by Nanda and Warms (1998) language does more than just reflect culture: it is the way in which an individual is introduce to the order of the physical and social environment. As the definition of Dawson (1967), language lies at the root of culture, and that culture and language are inseparable aspects of the same process. According to Edwards (1985), language is important in ethnic and nationalist sentiment because of its power and visible symbolism (reason why the Mauritian government as implemented Mauritian Creoles in schools). For Bolch (1996) language and culture are so firmly intertwined that optional cro ss-cultural international business cannot be attained without substantial foreign-language capabilities. Reasonable cultural awareness without foreign-language capabilities is common, especially among English speaking business people, but such a lack of skills set very definite limits on the efficacy of cross-cultural performance. Intercultural communication gained prominence after efforts by anthropologists and linguists like Hall and Lado to link language, culture, and communication (Kramsch, 2001). 2.3.2 Norms, Roles, Beliefs and Values Norms are culturally defined rules for determining acceptable and appropriate behaviour (Tubbs and Moss, 1994). They include those that govern social situations and conversational routines such as greetings, making requests, and expressing various emotions. Roles are also sources of cultural variability. Roles are sets of norms applicable to specific groups of people in society. As culture relates to norms, values and customs of people it generates behavioural differentiation. Culture as a set of norms, rules and customs, as a result people from different cultures have differences in their norms and customs. Culture is a pattern of spiritual, emotional, mental and physical realities, all of which interact in the life of society and individuals. It involves the way we think, dress and speak, the words we use, our beliefs, the food we eat, the style of our clothes and our homes, the relationship between relatives, our music and our art, and much more. Higher education levels expose ind ividuals to different cultural perspectives and make them less likely to follow local behavioral norms and more global as consumers (Keillor et al., 2001). Cultural syndromes are cognitive structures that help one organize and interpret the world by focusing attention on certain patterns or themes in the subjective elements of the environment, such as values, norms, beliefs, and assumptions (Triandis, 1994a) 2.3.3 Status Homer and Kahle (1988), the value attitude behavior hierarchy would support the contention that cultural values do correlate with attitudes. Orientation toward status is another cultural dimension identified as affecting human behavior and refers to how people are judged in society (Trompanaars Hampdon-Turner, 1997). Achievement is a cultural orientation where people are accorded status based on how well they perform their functions (e.g., subject matter expertise) and on what they have accomplished. Ascription is a cultural orientation where status is attributed based on who or what a person is (i.e., based on age, gender, or social connections). 2.4. High context-communication and low context communication. High context or Low context communication theory is one of the most important theories in cross-cultural research, which can be viewed as a culture based on the messages that people within the culture prefer to use (Richardson and Smith, 2007). It properly links management style and staff behaviour to discuss the issue of cross-cultural management in communication. According to Richardson and Smith (2007) refer to Hall (1976) and argue that cultures cannot be easily classified into High Context or Low Context, but to some extent, some cultures tend to be at the higher end while others are at the lower end of the continuum. In a high-context culture, people interdepend on each other. Information is widely shared through the word with potential meaning. In a low-context cutlure, people tend to be individualized, kind of alienated and fragmented, people do not involve with each other too much. High context communication tends to engage an indirect way to express while low context commun ication prefers direct information exchange (Kim, Pan and Park, 1998, Richardson and Smith, 2007). In a low-context culture, people coming from other culture can easily match these machinations, but in a high-context culture, these high-context machinations cannot be easily matched by people coming from low-context culture (Holden, 2002). The characteristic of high-context communication is economical, fast, efficient, and satisfying, however, programming is time-consumed (Kim, Pan and Park, 1998). Contrarily, low-context massages are more context-free than high-context communication, information about the character and background and values of the participants are less influencing on people to make deals, however, the reliance to make deal is upon the explicit communication. In high context cultures communication involves messages in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted part of the message While low context the mass of the information is vested i n explicit code (Hall Hall, 1990). Cultural dimensions such as uncertainty avoidance, high-low context, field dependence-independence, and analytic-holistic reasoning are all cultural dimensions that may impact the leaders search (Salas e t al., 2004). 2.5 Hofstede cultural dimension Framework The human relations theme contains cultural dimensions that address how members of cultures react, interact, and develop relationships with others. Specifically, this theme includes dimensions that describe the identification of in- versus out-groups and corresponding expectations (Hofstede, 1980), preferences for individualistic tendencies versus group consensus and corresponding behavioral consequences (Trompenaars Hampden-Turner, 1998), and the maintenance of the status quo (Schwartz, 1999). The power relations theme contains cultural dimensions that revolve around peoples beliefs, values, and subsequent behaviors resulting from perceptions of power. Cultural dimensions within this theme guide rules and regulations regarding peoples reaction to power as well as the perception, acceptance, and adherence of power being distributed unequally (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstedes classification was originally related to work values rather than consumer behavior and other micro phenomena; it mi ght be less relevant in more culture specific studies on more micro phenomena in consumer behaviors (Yau et al. 1999). However, his work appears to be heavily relied upon because of its extensiveness across cultures and its intuitive appeal. While the first four themes deal primarily with direct social interactions, the next several themes pertain to differences in cultures orientation to more inanimate objects (i.e., rules, times, nature). Dimensions, which pertain to a cultures orientation to rules, include those that describe the adherence to, application of, and comfort with rules for members of a certain culture. Specifically, this theme refers to attitudes and preferences for ambiguity, rules guiding actions, and the amount of rules that govern behaviour for a particular society (Hofstede, 1980). National cultures also have different preferences with regard to perception of time and how those perceptions guide behavior. The time orientation theme refers to dimensions that explain how time perceptions of members relate to rewards, how time is viewed, and whether or not members pay attention to time (Hofstede, 2001; Hall Hall, 1990). The following provides a brief outline of the six dimensions of national cultures (Hofstede, 2001; Hofstede et al., 2010). (1) Power distance refers to the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. It is shown as much by the behavioural values of superiors, who display their power and exercise it, as by the behavioural values of subordinates who wait for their superiors to show their status and power, and are uncomfortable if they do not personally experience it. (2) Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members of a society feel uncomfortable in ambiguous and uncertain situations and take actions to avoid them. The dimension of uncertainty avoidance measures the extent to which people in a society tend to feel threatened by uncertain, ambiguous or unde ¬Ã‚ ned situations. Where uncertainty avoidance is high, organizations promote stable careers, produce rules and procedures, etc. Nevertheless societies in which uncertainty avoidance is strong are also characterized by a higher level of anxiety and aggressiveness that creates, among other things, a strong inner urge to work hard (Hofstede, 1980a). (3) Individualism versus collectivism refers to the extent to which individuals are supposed to look after themselves or remain integrated into groups. Hofstede (2001) defines it as the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another. According to this definition, national culture is a set of collective beliefs and values that distinguish people of one nation from those of another. (4) Masculinity versus femininity refers to the distribution of emotional roles between the genders. It contrasts tough masculine with tender feminine societies. A society is masculine when the dominant values favour assertiveness, earning money, showing off possessions and caring little for others. Conversely, feminine societies favour nurturing roles, interdependence between people and caring for others (who are seen as worth caring for, because they are temporarily weak). The masculinity/femininity dimension has been so called because, on average, men tended to score high on one extreme and women on the other, across societies. (5) Long-term versus short-term orientation refers to the extent to which a culture programs its members to accept delayed satisfaction of their material, social and emotional needs. Long-term orientation is future-focused and has long-term goals whereas short-term orientations focus on respect for tradition and are oriented toward the past and the present. Long Term Orientation stands for the fostering of virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift. Its opposite pole, Short Term O